The Essential Goal Of Witness Protection Law Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 15 Words: 4539 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Witness is an important constituent of the administration of justice. By giving evidence linking to the charge of the offence the witness performs a sacred duty of assisting the court to discover the truth. This is the reason why before giving evidence he/she either takes an oath in the name of God or makes a solemn affirmation that he/she will speak the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Essential Goal Of Witness Protection Law Essay" essay for you Create order The witness has no risk in the decision of the criminal court as he is neither the accused nor the victim. The witness performs an important public duty of assisting the court in deciding on the guilt or otherwise of the accused in the case. He sacrifices his time and takes the trouble to travel all the way to the court to give evidence. The witness performs an important public duty of assisting the court in deciding on the guilt or otherwise of the accused in the case. He sacrifices his time and takes the trouble to travel all the way to the court to give evidence. The witness should therefore be treated with great respect and consideration as a guest of honour. Unfortunately, all these are seen not to be happening in the courts. There are two broad aspects to the need for witness protection. The first is to ensure that evidence of witnesses that has already been collected at the stage of investigation is not allowed to be destroyed by witnesses resiling from their statements whi le deposing on oath before a court. This phenomenon of witnesses turning `hostile on account of the failure to `protect their evidence is one aspect of the problem. This in turn would involve special procedures to be introduced into the criminal law to balance the need for anonymity of witnesses on the one hand and the rights of the accused, on the other, for an open public trial with a right to cross examination of the witnesses, after knowing all details about witnesses. The other aspect is the physical and mental vulnerability of the witness and to the taking care of his or her welfare in various respects which call for physical protection of the witness at all stages of the criminal justice process till the conclusion of the case. This can be done by the introduction of witness protection programmes. While the first aspect of protecting the evidence of witnesses from the danger of their turning hostile has received limited attention at the hands of Parliament in some special statutes dealing with terrorism, there is an urgent need to have a comprehensive legislative scheme dealing with the second aspect of physical protection of the witness as well. Further, both aspects of anonymity and witness protection will have to be ensured in all criminal cases involving grave crimes not limited to terrorist crimes. The implementation of such a law would involve drawing up: (a) Procedures for granting anonymity to witnesses and also (b) Introducing Witness Protection Programmes in which personal protection is granted to the witness; sometimes by shifting the witness to a different place or even a different country; or by providing some money for maintenance or even by providing employment elsewhere. Unfortunately, all these are seen not to be happening in the courts and the countries. When the witness goes to the court for giving evidence there is hardly any officer of the court who will be there to receive him, provide a seat and tell him where the c ourt he is to give evidence is located or to give him such other assistance as he may need. In most of the courts there is no designated place with proper arrangements for seating and resting while waiting for his turn to be examined as a witness in the court. Toilet facility, drinking water and other amenities like food and refreshment even are not provided. The witness bears all this to get nothing in return at all. The witness is not adequately compensated for the amount of money he spends for his traveling and staying in the town where the court is located. Rate of allowance fixed long back are quite unrealistic and not adequate to meet the minimum needs of the witness. Steps should therefore be taken to review the scales of traveling and other allowances taking into account the prevailing cost in the area where the court is located. What is worse is that even the allowances fixed are not paid to the witness immediately on the apparent ground that funds are not available. The re are also complaints of corrupt officials of the administration who draw the allowances and do not pay them to the witnesses. This is an unpardonable crime against the witnesses. Therefore effective steps have to be taken to ensure that payment of the allowances to the witness is neither denied nor delayed. Fool proof arrangements should be made to see that the allowances are paid immediately away. On top of all this, the witnesses and their families also face problems regarding safety. Yet, the witnesses help the court to give better justice without any fear of their life and property. The court in return should also show its gratification in an appropriate manner. Chapter1. PROBLEMS FACED BY A WITNESS ________________________________________________ The witness is one of the most important sources of information in discovering the truth about the case, but the pains and troubles he/she has to undergo to help the court is a lot as well. A major problem is about the safety of the witnesses and their family members who face danger at different stages. They are often threatened and the seriousness of the threat depends upon the type of the case and the background of the accused and his family. Many times crucial witnesses are threatened or injured prior to their testifying in the court. If the witness is still not agreeable he may even be murdered. In such situations the witness will not come forward to give evidence unless he is assured of protection or is guaranteed anonymity of some form of physical disguise. Some times holding of in-camera proceedings may be sufficient to protect the interest of the witness. I however the circumstances indicate that the life of any particular witness is in danger, the court must take such m easures as are necessary to keep the identity of the witness secret and make arrangements to ensure protection to the witness without affecting the right of the accused to cross examine him. The threat from the accused side may be before he gives his statement before the police officer or evidence in the court or after the conclusion of the trial. There is a growing tendency of subjecting the witness and his family members to serious threats to life, abduction or raping or damaging the witnesses property or harming his image and interest in other ways. The witness has no protection whatsoever. Many countries in the world have enacted laws for witnesses protection. There is no such law in India. The witness also suffers in the court in various other ways. When he comes to the court to give evidence he is often told that the case has been adjourned and is asked to come back on another city. When a case is adjourned, the witnesses in attendance are quite often not paid the allowance s. The witnesses should not be punished by denying him his rightful expenses for no fault of his own. Steps should therefore be taken to ensure that the witnesses are paid allowances on the same day if the case is adjourned. Quite often more than one witness is summoned to prove the same point. The prosecutor may pay attention to reduce duplication of evidence resulting in unnecessary waste of time of courts and expenses. The next portion is about the way the witness is treated during trial. The witness is entitled to be treated with courtesy when he arrives for giving evidence. Similarly, due courtesy should be shown to him when he enters the court for giving evidence. The present practice is to make the witness stand and give his evidence from the place designated for that purpose. Comfort, convenience and dignity of the witness should be the concern of the judge. A chair should be provided for the witness and requested to take his seat for giving evidence. The lawyer for the d efence in order to demonstrate that the witness is not truthful or a reliable person would ask all sorts of questions to him. When the questions are likely to annoy, insult or threaten the witness, the judge does not object and often sits as a mute spectator. It is high time the judges are sensitized about the responsibility to regulate cross examination so as to ensure that the witness is not ill treated affecting his dignity and honour. Therefore the High Courts should take measure through training and supervision to sensitize the judges of their responsibility to protect the rights of the witnesses. So far as witness is concerned, it is his primary duty to give true evidence of what he knows. Unfortunately this is not happening and the problem of perjury is growing. Chapter2. PROPOSED MECHANISM FOR WITNESS PROTECTION PROGRAMME ________________________________________________ Public trial and cross-examination of witnesses in open court: Indian laws Section 327 of Cr.PC provides for trial in the open court and 327 (2) provides for in-camera trials for offences involving rape under Section 376 of IPC and under Section 376 A to 376 D of the IPC. Section 273 requires the evidence to be taken in the presence of the accused. Section 299 indicates that in certain exceptional circumstances an accused may be denied his right to cross-examine a prosecution witness in open court. Further, under Section 173 (6) the police officer can form an opinion that any part of the statement recorded under Section 161 of a person the prosecution proposes to examine as its witness need not be disclosed to the accused if it is not essential in the interests of justice or is inexpedient in the public interest. Section 228A IPC prescribes punishment if the identity of the victim of rape is published. Likewise, Section 21 of the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000 prohibits publication of the name, address and other particulars w hich may lead to the identification of the juvenile. Under Section 33 of the Evidence Act, in certain exceptional cases, where cross examination is not possible, previous deposition of the witness can be considered that relevant in subsequent proceedings. The Evidence Act requires to be looked into afresh to provide for protection to a witness. Protection of identity of witnesses: Special Statutes in India In the pre-constitutional era, Section 31 of the Bengal Suppression of Terrorist Outrages Act, 1932 empowered the special Magistrate to exclude persons or public from the precincts of the court. Section 13 of TADA, 1985 and Section 16 TADA 1987 provided for protection of the identity and address of a witness secret. Section 30 POTA 2002 is on the same lines as Section 16 TADA, 1987. Apart from these provisions in special statutes, there is a need for a general law dealing with witness anonymity in all criminal cases where there is danger to the life of the witness or of his relatives or to his property. Protection of identity of witnesses v. Rights of accused Principles of law developed by the Supreme Court and the High Courts In the pre-Maneka Gandhi phase the Supreme Court, in Gurbachan Singh v. State of Bombay  [1]  , upheld a provision of the Bombay Police Act, 1951 that denied permission to a detenue to cross-examine the witnesses who had deposed against him. It was held that the law was only to deal with exceptional cases where witnesses, for fear of violence to their person or property, were unwilling to depose publicly against bad character. At this stage, the issue was not examined whether the procedure was fair. The decisions in G.X. Francis v. Banke Bihari Singh  [2]  and Maneka Sanjay Gandhi v. Rani Jethmalani  [3]  stressed the need for a congenial atmosphere for the conduct of a fair trial and this included the protection of witnesses. In Kartar Singh v. State of Punjab  [4]  the Supreme Court upheld the validity of ss.16 (2) and (3) of the Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act, 1987 (TADA) which gave the discretion to the Designated Court to keep the identity and address of a witness secret upon certain contingencies; to hold the proceedings at a place to be decided by the court and to withhold the names and addresses of witnesses in its orders. The court held that the right of the accused to cross-examine the prosecution witnesses was not absolute but was subject to exceptions. The same reasoning was applied to uphold the validity of Section 30 of the Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002 (POTA) in Peoples Union of Civil Liberties v. Union of India  [5]  . In Delhi Domestic Working Womens Forum v. Union of India  [6]  the Supreme Court emphasised the maintenance of the anonymity of the victims of rape who would be the key witnesses in trials involving the offence of rape. The importance of holding rape trials in camera as mandated by Section 327 (2) and (3) Cr.PC was reiterated in State of Punjab v. Gurmit Singh  [7]  . In Sakshi v. Union of India  [8]  the Supreme Court referred to the 172nd Report of the Law Commission an d laid down that certain procedural safeguards had to be followed to protect the victim of child sexual abuse during the conduct of the trial. In the Best Bakery Case  [9]  , in the context of the collapse of the trial on account of witnesses turning hostile as a result of intimidation, the Supreme Court reiterated that legislative measures to emphasize prohibition against tampering with witness, victim or informant, have become the imminent and inevitable need of the day. Although, the guidelines for witness protection laid down by the Delhi High Court in Neelam Katara v. Union of India (judgment dated 14.10.2003) require to be commended, they do not deal with the manner in which the identity of the witness can be kept confidential either before or during the trial. The judgment of the Full Bench of the Punjab and Haryana High Court in Bimal Kaur Khalsa  [10]  , which provides for protection of the witness from the media, does not deal with all the aspects of the problem. T hese judgments highlight the need for a comprehensive legislation on witness protection. Chapter3. WITNESS PROTECTION PROGRAMMES IN OTHER COUNTRIES: A COMPARATIVE STUDY ________________________________________________ In the United Kingdom, the judgment of the House of Lords in Scott v. Scott  [11]  required that the exception to the general rule that administration of justice should take place in open court should be based upon the operation of some other overriding principle which ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ does not leave its limits to the individual discretion of the Judge. In the Leveller Magazine case (1979) it was held by the House of Lords that apart from statutory exceptions it was open to the court in the exercise of its inherent powers to control the conduct of proceedings so long as the court reasonably believes it to be necessary in order to save the ends of justice. This was subsequently recognized by the enactment of Section 11 of the (UK) Contempt of Court Act, 1981. Under Section 24 of the Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act, 1999 evidence may be given through a live telecast link where the witness is outside UK or is a child. Sections 16 to 33 of the same Act requi re the court to consider special measures of various kinds for the protection of vulnerable and intimidated witnesses. In R vs. DJX, SCY, GCZ  [12]  , the Court of Appeal allowed child witnesses to be screened from the accused. In R vs. Tailor (Gary)  [13]  , various guidelines were issued. The Lord Diplock Commission, appointed to consider various issues concerning the violent confrontations in Ireland, suggested that witnesses could be screened from the accused. In R v. Murphy (1989) it was held that identity of the witness should be kept secret not only from the accused but also from the defence lawyer. In R v. Lord Saville of Newdigate  [14]  the Court of Appeal overturned the decision of the Lord Saville Tribunal appointed to enquire into the incident of shooting of 26 people during a demonstration at Londonderry, refusing to grant anonymity to military witnesses. The Court of Appeal held that the approach of the Tribunal was not fair to the soldiers as the risk to them and their families was a serious possibility. In the second round (Lord Saville v. Widgery Soldiers  [15]  , the Court of Appeal overturned the decision of the Lord Saville Tribunal to shift the enquiry from London to Londonderry in Northern Ireland holding that the elements at Londonderry in Ireland pose a threat to the enquiry and those who are or will be taking part in it, and in particular, a solider witnesses. The venue, according to the Court of Appeal, should be London only. Further, since there would be live video linkage to Londonderry the public confidence will not be eroded by holding a part of the enquiry in London. The same approach was adopted in regard to the recording of the evidence of police witnesses. Following the ruling of the European Court on Human Rights in Chahel v. UK, the Special Judgment on Appeals Commission Act, 1997 and the Northern Ireland Act, 1998 have been enacted which provide for courts to sit in camera where it was necessary on national security grounds and for appointing special counsel to represent individuals in those proceedings. In Australia, the Supreme Court of Victoria (Australia) in Jarvie (1995) approved of non-disclosure of the names and addresses of informers and undercover police officers as well as other witnesses whose personal safety would be endangered by the disclosure of their identity. This has been followed in a series of other cases as well. Australia also has 8 different statutes (in each of the States) dealing with witness protection but not with the anonymity or screening aspects. Section 2A (1) (b) of the Australian Evidence Act, 1989 deals with special witnesses suffering from trauma or likely to be intimidated. In New Zealand, under Section 13A of the (New Zealand) Evidence Act, 1908 (introduced 1986), protection is available to undercover officers in cases involving drug offences and offences tried on indictment attracting a maximum penalty of at least 7 years imprisonment. A ce rtificate has to be given by the Commissioner of Police to the court that the police officer requiring protection has not been convicted of any offence. In 1997, Section 13G was introduced making protection applicable to all witnesses if their lives were likely to be endangered. In R v. L  [16]  , this provision came to be tested on the anvil of Section 25(f) of the New Zealand Bill of Rights which provides for the right to cross-examination to an accused. The court upheld the provision on the ground that the right of cross examination was not absolute. Under Section 13C (4) the Judge, might make an anonymity order where he is satisfied that the safety of a witness is likely to be endangered if his identity was disclosed. Sub-section (5) of Section 13C provides for the factors to be accounted for by the court and sub-section (6), the conditions to be fulfilled. The power of the court to exclude the public or to direct screening of the witnesses or to give evidence by close circu it television is provided under Section 13G. The 1997 legislation is comprehensive and has been held by the courts to be fair vis-à  -vis the New Zealand Bill of Rights in R vs. Atkins  [17]  . In Canada, the courts have granted more importance to the exception of innocence at stake rather than the needs of administration of justice. In other words, anonymity of witnesses is treated as a privilege granted under the common law unless there is a material to show that it will jeopardize the proof of innocence of the accused. The important cases in this regard are R v. Durette  [18]  ; R v. Khela  [19]  ; CBC v. New Brunswick  [20]  ; R v. Leipert  [21]  and R v. Mentuck  [22]  . In South Africa, the approach is on a case by case basis in order to balance the conflict of interests with a view to ensuring proper administration of justice. Section 153 of the (South Africa) Criminal Procedure Code permits criminal proceedings to be held in camera to protect p rivacy to the witness. Section 154 gives discretion to the court to refuse publication of the name of the accused. The South African courts have permitted the witness to give evidence behind close doors or to give witness anonymity. The courts prefer to prohibit the press from reporting on identity rather than exclude them from the court room. The important cases are S v. Leepile  [23]  and S v. Pastoors  [24]  . The courts in the US have held that the constitutional protection in favour of the right to confrontation by way of cross examination, as provided in the 6th Amendment to the Constitution, is not absolute and could be restricted for the purpose of protecting witness identity by using video link or by shielding the witness from the accused though not from the lawyers to the defence or the court or the jury. The important cases are Alford v. US (1931); Pointer v. Texas (1965) and Smith v. Illinois (1968). In Maryland v. Craig (1990), the court upheld the procedu re under the Maryland Courtsand Judicial Procedure Code which provided for protection of child witnesses by way of one-way closed-circuit procedure and held that it did not violate the right to confrontation guaranteed by the 6th Amendment. The European Court of human rights has in Kostovski (1990), Doorson (1996), Vissier (2002) and Fitt (2002) recognized the need to protect anonymity of witnesses while, on account of Article 6 of the European Convention, more importance appears to have been given to the rights of the accused. If national courts had determined that anonymity was necessary or not necessary in public interest, the European court could not interfere. The judgments of the International Criminal Tribunal for former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in the Tadic and Delaic cases in the context of protection of witnesses, anonymity, re-traumatisitation and general and special measures for their protection have been discussed in detail. Likewise, the decisions of the International Crimina l Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) (1994) with reference to the relevant statute which provide for protection of victims and witnesses have also been discussed in great detail in the Consultation Paper. Chapter4. PROBLEM OF PERJURY ________________________________________________ One of the main reasons for the large percentage of acquittals is criminal cases is of witnesses turning hostile and giving false testimony in criminal cases. Several reasons are attributed to this difficulty such as inordinate delay in the trial of cases, threats or inducement from the accused, etc. As in criminal cases the prosecution relies mainly on oral evidence the problem assumes critical importance. Witnesses give evidence in the Criminal Courts after they are administered oath or affirmation under the Oaths Act, 1969. Section 8 of the Oaths Act provides that the witness is legally bound to state the truth on the subject. The sanction behind the oath is supposed to be the fear of God, the supernatural dispenser of justice. In practice however it is seen that the witness makes false statements without any regard for the sanctity of the oath or affirmation that has been administered to them. One gets an impression that administration of oath or affirmation virtually gives license to the witness to make false statements before the Court with impunity. There is no doubt there is statutory sanction against the witnesses making false statements in the court. Perjury is made a Penal offence under Sections 193 to 195 of the Indian Penal Code for which adequate punishment is prescribed. Section 195 (1) (b) of the Code provides that no court shall take cognizance inter-alia of the offence of perjury under Sections 193 to 195 except on the complaint in writing of that court or of the court to which that court is subordinate. Section 340 prescribes the procedure to be followed for making a complaint contemplated by Section 195. It requires the court to hold a preliminary enquiry to record a finding that it is expedient in the interest of justice that an enquiry should be made into any offence referred to in Section 195 (1) (b). Thereafter it has to make a complaint in writing and send it to the Magistrate I Class having jurisdiction. The order under Sect ion 340 is appealable under Section 341 of the Code. Section 343 prescribes the procedure to be followed in dealing with the case Section 344 however prescribes an alternative summary procedure. It provides that if the Court of Session or Magistrate of first class if at any time of delivery of judgement in the case expresses an opinion that the witness appearing in such proceeding had knowingly or willingly given false evidence or fabricated false evidence for use in the proceeding, the Court may if satisfied that it is necessary and expedient in the interest of justice that the witness should be tried summarily, take cognizance after giving reasonable opportunity of showing cause, try such offender summarily and sentence him to imprisonment or to a fine or both. Thus it is seen that the courts response to the serious problem of perjury is rather one of utter indifference. Unfortunately, these provisions are rarely resorted to and perjury has become a routine in courts where t ruth and justice must prevail. Perjury can contribute to the wrong person being convicted while the true criminal and a perjurer walk on the streets in freedom. Offering false testimony in a criminal trial is a serious offence that undermines the integrity of the Criminal Justice System. For justice to be done truth must prevail. Witness must be made to take his oath or solemn affirmation seriously. The sentence prescribed for perjury is quite lenient. In the State of New York the sentence for perjury was recently enhanced to 15 years. As the menace of perjury is shaking the very foundation of the criminal justice system it is necessary to curb this menace and the sentence prescribed should be enhanced. CONCLUSION ________________________________________________ Witness is one of the most important constituent of justice. He is one of the most important sources of information in discovering the truth about the case, but the pains and troubles he has to undergo to help the court is a lot as well. By giving evidence the witness helps the courts to give correct judgement and justice. The witnesses have the danger of their lives as well as that of their families. They have the danger of their properties as well. They have to undergo lots of discomfort when they come to give evidence. Even after doing all this they do not get anything in return. Therefore it can be clearly seen that the courts are negligent in the way that they treat the witnesses. Witness protection should take place and already various steps have been taken towards it. Many countries like, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, etc. have a well developed mechanism for witness protection. These mechanisms may encourage even more witnesses to come forward to give their evidence for the greater good. Witnesses therefore should be shown the respect and gratitude which they are actually worth of. The problem of perjury also prevails and it depends upon the witness himself to stop it. Otherwise it can contribute to the wrong person being convicted while the true criminal and a perjurer walk on the streets in freedom.

Essay on Effective Communication Inside the Courtroom

Effective Communication Inside the Courtroom Do you swear to tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth so help you God? This is a statement that is often heard inside the courtroom, one that all must swear to as they attempt to testify in a court of law. The constitution of the United States allows accused to be judged by a jury of their peers to determine their guilt or innocence (Abadinsky, 1995). In order for that to take place a trial must be conducted to allow the evidence to be presented. In order for that to happen the state must have its attorneys present the facts that have been discovered. It is the responsibility of the state attorney or prosecutor to convince the members of the jury that the events being†¦show more content†¦In order to effectively express ones argument the attorney must connect with the members of the jury. In some way they should relate to the people that are making the decision of guilt or innocence. Which means to simplify language, or thought or images so that the comm on man or woman can understand the purpose. Those people are not only the jury but also opposing counsel and well as the judge. Also, that communication is not only what is verbally spoken but what can also be nonverbal. Significance of the Study The legal system is a key component of American life. Thus, this study is significant to three distinct groups: legal professionals, common citizens and scholars. This study is important to the common citizen because the legal system in the United States allows any American citizen over the age of 18 to be eligible for jury service (Lewis 1995). Thus all Americans could benefit from this study in case they are asked to be on a jury. To know proper communication techniques inside the courtroom would help if called to serve. 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Jan Van Eyck Madonna in the Church Free Essays

Madonna in a Church is a small oil panel on oak by Flemish painter Jan van Check. Madonna in a church was made between c. 1438-1440. We will write a custom essay sample on Jan Van Eyck Madonna in the Church or any similar topic only for you Order Now Van Check has been traditionally credited with the invention of painting in oils, and, although this is incorrect, there is no doubt that he was the real master of the technique. The use of oil paints is very significant in this artworks luminescent quality and presentation of space. The artist creates a new relationship between the viewer and the picture. There is an illusion of a modern, tatterdemalion’s scene and through this new more attraction, lifelike approach, the viewer becomes connected to the painting, not Just in physical terms, but socially, spiritually and emotionally as well. † The minute we look at it the shimmering quality of the art stands out. Being only 12. 25†³ x 5. 5†³ it’s clear why its elaboration is so astonishing. The painting is very long compared to its width, emphasizing the size of the Madonna and the tall structure of the church that it portrays. The artwork has brilliant intense warm colors, dominating brown and red and the light illustrated with light yellow. On Madonna in a Church, the artist represents a variety of subjects with striking legalism in microscopic detail. The pigment was suspended in a layer of oil that also trapped light, this way Van Check created a Jewel-like medium. On the Madonna’s crown and Jewelry we see shiny precious metals and gems and also, with the help of this technique he could give a life like impression to light. The colors are so luminous that the passage of five hundred years has barely diminished them. There are so many details and elements to discover on the painting that the eye has a constant exercise inside the picture. From the first view we can tell that the artwork is narrative and descriptive. Van Check had a sharp edged look of the world but he put this look into a fictional environment. The painting was stolen in 1877 and the frame was not found. Despite this absence we still have an impression of a frame because the cathedral interior is viewed at an angle. From this perspective the doorway has a frame effect to the painting. The shape of the doorway is round, following the ceiling and with this circle effect leading our eyes to the main figure, Mary. † Van Check has followed traditional theology; his realist art displayed in iconic and allusive forms the Church’s teachings and popular piety. Yet at the same time, he played with symbolism, which is evidently present in the artwork. The Madonna’s size is surreal, very big in proportion to the interior of the exceptionally beautiful church. This is a symbolic niche, giving her all the importance. Byzantine painters used this method for the same purpose. In the background, angels appear to be singing from hymn books or saying Mass before her altar. † The image of light has a heavy vision, the rays of the sun come supernaturally from the north to strike through the glass and hit the floor with breathtaking realism. Two lolls of sunlight on the floor in front of Mary come from a direction that defies natural law. Therefore the light is mystical, a symbol of God. We can see it penetrating the church Just as the Holy Ghost entered and impregnated the body of the Virgin, in direct opposition to the laws of flesh. The perspective and lighting seem to be so natural, until we think about it we don’t see that it’s unnatural, and that it is actually a sacred light. Maybe this is a way to express that what is religious was incorporated into everyday life, that even a Heavenly light had to become like daylight under Jan Van Cock’s paintbrush. The virgin takes her place in the center, gently swaying, she seem to follow her own gaze. Her hair is red; throughout the ages red-haired women have had significance in the arts. They are viewed as unique and mystical, Just like Mary. She has a beautiful tracery behind her: wooden carving, the stories of her life. It is especially important in the Northern Renaissance, because they used the Juxtaposition of the presented sacred character and then an object or artwork of the exact same personage on the picture, referring to Biblical times. We see a sculpture of Christ behind her, while the baby Jesus is in her arms. She is presented in the everyday life of those people living in the 15th century and part of their modern culture. The church is richly decorated, in the Gothic style. Jan Van Check pays attention to detail in his painting of architectural interiors, done with unrelenting accuracy. The church is an important symbol of Marry chastity. It’s an Ideal church, Jan Van Cock’s fantasy of a perfect interior to enthrone Mary. This is a way to represent the heavenly sphere in an environment that the people of the time period can recognize. Concluding from the small size of the painting, it was not a painting designed for a huge Gothic church where most paintings were much bigger in proportion. It was probably made for a wealthy man at the time. In the Renaissance it was common for wealthy people to collect artworks, it had a social significance. Above this, religious paintings and prayer books were manifestations of commitment to prayer. The Flemish didn’t limit their demonstration of piety to the public realm, the individuals commissioned artworks for private use in their homes as well. † Ideology of the time also influenced the painting. The Madonna is holding the child that is supposed to be Christ. Her face is turned away from the child, achieving a less engaged look. The scene is all about her. In Van Cock’s painting, the child is a realistic baby; emphasizing the humanity of Christ. The interpretation of this can be the fact that Mary was a human, and in the Renaissance, humanism had a very big impact. After the neglected human dimension of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance brings humanity in focus again with the development of art, technology, and inventions. † Van Check gives Mary three roles: Mother of Christ, the personification of the Christian Church and Queen of Heaven, the latter apparent from her Jewel-studded crown. The painting is majestic and luminous, it lights up like a dream. But at the same time the message is both worldly and devout, the artist set out to satisfy both demands, but in a form of realism that contained within itself a playful, even ironic attitude towards the relations existing between individuals, society and religion. Sources: Graham, Jenny. Inventing van Check: the remaking of an artist for the modern age. Oxford: Berg, 2007. Print. Harrison, Craig. Jan van Check: the play of realism. London: Reaction Books ;, 1991. 188. Print. How to cite Jan Van Eyck Madonna in the Church, Papers

Eva Smith Essay Paper Example For Students

Eva Smith Essay Paper When the act changes the scenery does not change, this is done to create the affect of claustrophobia on the characters, this effect is created by there being no interval, and it makes them fell as though they can not get away from the inspector, like in a police station where you can not get away, you have to face the facts. This is so the audience are comfortable but not so cosy that they relax. You feel that there is limited use of props. Once again I must agree because there are not a lot of props being used, this is one again due to the fact that the audience need to concentrate on the play rather than the props or the scenery. The use of the photograph as a prop is used exceptionally well. This is because the photo, just like Eva Smith, could be more than one person. This builds up the tension, because the inspector never actually shows the photo to more than one person at a time so it could easily be a different one, and it gets the audience thinking. The telephone is also use for a small amount, but in the time used well. The telephone in only used twice, once when Mr. Berling phones the infirmary and once when the police officer calls to tell them about the girl being murdered. Both of these scenes build up tension for the play, by the Berlings going from all getting accused of murdering Eva Smith, to there not even being a girl in the infirmary to a police officer calling them to tell them about the girl that had committed suicide. You believe that dramatic irony is over used. I dont think so because it is meant to be blatantly obvious so that the audience can see that Mr. Berlings speech about there not being a war and the titanic being unsinkable He is full of pompous pronouncements, such as The Titanic is absolutely unsinkable. I use this example to show how out-of-touch Birling is and how arrogant he is. He places his faith in business and greed. His obsessive faith in the individual, in progress and capitalism is the kind of selfish attitude that has led to Eva Smiths downfall. And this is what the Inspector comes to teach him about. Mr. Berling says this speech just before the inspector arrives and this is very important to the play. Finally you think that the ending is not dramatic and is disappointing, here I must strongly disagree with you because the dramatic use of the tension building telephone call makes for a brilliant ending! The ending is not disappointing because the mysterious character (inspector Goole) disappears make the audience doubt and put questions into their heads, It makes them think. Please read this letter carefully, as it will be a big help in you understanding the play. Yours sincerely J. B. Priestley Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE J. B. Priestley section.

Genre Of Clowning Essays - Clowns, Comedy, Clown, Circus Clown

Genre Of Clowning The Genre Of Clowning The genre of clowning actually originates from Greece, where satires had begun originating slowly as time went by. The art of satire was challenged throughout the years to form the various forms of clowning we have today. A clown must have certain abilities or skills to master its comedy upon the audience. It is a profession that requires delicate detail, precise movements, and of course a reaction. The costume for every type of comedy is extremely different. Commedia DellArte for example required masks for each of the characters, the masks obviated the use of face expression and communication, therefore making the characters more puppet like; relying more upon the use of voice and gesture. Masks were not only used in Commedia DellArte but also in other forms of Greek and Roman dramas. Other forms of comedy usually consist of costumes focusing on the clowns main faults and/or pertaining the clowns own personality. Not only is costume used to make an impression on the audience when first sighting the clown; but also the make-up must be done right to enhance whether the clown is happy, sad, evil, or falls into another category of personality. The make-up also provides great detail, and in a way is a more modern format of the masks used in Greece and Rome during the 15th Century. When one thinks of clowning, the instant image in mind is the thought of clowns in a circus; performing acrobatic acts and leaving the crowd in awe. This is usually most typical for more physical clowns, such as The Three Stooges. Though they do not look like the everyday circus clowns, they perform back flips, somersaults, and portray it all as clumsiness. A clown does not always need to impress an audience by acrobatics, but just by wit; though some audiences are more captivated by the appearance of a physical act. A physical act adds more stamina and energy to a scene, and can leave an audience laughing for hours. To make an audience laugh a voice is needed to speak and attract attention. Such attention can be provoked by the forms of an accent, exaggeration of the voice, or even silent mime. Though with a mime, more physical action is needed to involve the audience. Modern day clowns tend to stray more so towards no noise and a variety of sounds, exhorted from time to time. I.E; Mr. Bean A voice shows us all a clowns own personal traits. The walk of a clown is usually conducted in such a way that the audience can relate to, or in such a hilarious manner that laughter sounds throughout the theatre. A walk is part of a clowns personality, and as you may have noted, every clown walks their own walk, stating their individuality and independence. All in all, clowns have formed throughout the years to meet the requirements of a modern day society, but have still managed to hold the descent of Greece and Rome comedy within them. Theater

What Is a GED Should You Get One

What Is a GED Should You Get One SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you don't have a traditional high school diploma, you can still earn an equivalent credential by getting your GED. But what is a GED? Basically, it's a credential that can subsitute for a high school diploma. Since most employers (and all colleges) will require you to have graduated fromhigh school, it's usually a good idea to get aGED if you don't complete high school. Doing so helps to ensure thatyou'll have access to more opportunities later in life. In this article, I'll go through what GED stands for, the advantages this credentialcan give you, and how to get your GED. What Is a GED? How Is It Different From a High School Diploma? GED is an acronym that refers to the General Educational Development Test. The test measureswhether students possess the academic skills equivalent to those of graduating high school seniors. People who dropped out of high school initially, but are concerned about their prospects without a diploma, often take the GED Test. The four content areas that comprise the GED Test correspond to the four most prominent core subjects in high school: Reasoning Through Language Arts Mathematical Reasoning Social Studies Science This is a recent change instituted in 2014 (there used to be five subject areas, with Reading and Writing as separate tests).The test has been updated from the 2002 version to require a deeper understanding of the material and more advanced reasoning skills. If you pass the GED Test, you will earn a GED credential, which may be a diploma or certificate depending on the state.A GED certificate or diploma is technically considered just as valid as a regular high school diploma.However, some employers and colleges will favor students with high school diplomas over those with GEDs because of the skills each measures.Since you can earn your GED by taking one test (well, a series of tests, but I'll get to that later), it may not be seen as an indication of your academic perseverance on par with a traditional high school education. If you’re still young enough (usually under the age of 20, although policies differ across states) that you have the opportunity to go back to high school rather than get yourGED, I would strongly recommend trying to complete your course of study so you can earn a regular diploma.Still, it’s better to have a GED than no degree at all, and with recent changes to the test to make it more rigorous, it might be viewed differently in the future. Who can tell what the future holds for any of us? Does free will exist? Is life just a circular hallway where all exits lead to the unfeeling void of eternity? Ok, back to the GED, sorry. Will You Be Able to Get Into College With a GED? According to the College Board, 95 percent of U.S. colleges and universities will accept GED graduates who meet their other qualifications for admission. Some examples of the few colleges that don't accept GEDs include Fairfield University, Sewanee – University of the South, and Bowdoin College.Keep in mind, though, that many colleges require students to submit results from the SAT or ACT, and they are looking for a well-rounded application that includes a good GPA.If you dropped out of high school relatively early, you might not have a ton of information to put on your application.For this reason, many people who earn GEDs start out at community colleges or technical schools and transition to four-year colleges after a year or two. It can also be tough for students with GEDs to acquire the study skills needed for success in college because the test doesn’t prepare them for more in-depth assignments and long-term projects.If you had problems keeping up with assignments when you were in high school, you might want tothink about how you can revise any bad study habits you had in the past before you enroll in any competitive college programs. You should also know that college financial aid is just as readily available for students who have earned their GED as it is for traditional high school graduates, depending on your needs. You could benefit from using a planner in college if you're not the organized type (although personally I'm so disorganized that I forget to write things in planners, so that might be a problem). How Can You Earn YourGED? You must be at least 16 years old to take the GED Test, and you must not be enrolled in high school.You should also meet state eligibility requirements for the amount of time you’ve been out of high school.In some states, you have to be out of high school for at least 60 consecutive days before you’re allowed to take the test. Contact the program administrator in your state for more details. You must pass all four subject tests in the GED battery of tests, which means scoring at least a 150 on each test (scores range from 100 to 200 on the 2014 version).A score of 170 on each test is the benchmark for college and career readiness, and you will receive an Honors distinction if you reach this score.The four tests take seven and a half hours total and are administered by computer. You don't have to take them all on the same day, but some states enforce specific time frames for completing the tests.All questions are multiple choice except for one essay question on the Reading Through Language Arts test, one essay question on the Social Studies test, and two short answer questions on the Science test. If you don’t pass a test the first time around, you can retake it,although different states have different requirements for people who need to retake GED tests (such as additional fees or proof of attending a preparation class).Testing accommodations are available for those with disabilities; you can sign up for them through your online account after you register.You usually have to pay to sign up for the tests, but the cost varies from state to state. After you take each test, you willreceive your scores within24 hours.Here are some more details about the score report. Once you complete all four tests, you'll earn your GED in an elaborate ceremony where you must construct a giant pie chart that symbolizes your accomplishments. How Can You Prepare for the GED Test? You can call 800-62-MYGED (800-626-9433) to get referrals to local GED prep programs and testing sites along with more information and study materials.You can also sign up for an account on the GED website to register for the test and get access to practice tests and other materials that will help you prepare. Make sure to do some review if you’ve been out of school for a while and you think your skills might be rusty.Here’s a link to some free practice tests in both English and Spanish that you can take right away.According to the information on the GED site, most people manage to pass the test and earn their GED certificate or diploma within three months, so it doesn’t have to be a super long process! Should You Get Your GED? You still may be wondering whether it's really worth it to get your GED as compared to other options. In comparison to no diploma at all, it's a good idea to earn a GED. As I've mentioned, you'll have access to many more opportunities in life, and you may be able to continue your education further.You could also get your HSED or High School Equivalency Diploma, or you could choose to go back to high school if you're still young enough. In comparison to a regular high school diploma, a GED will make you look slightly less qualified to some employers and colleges. If you have the ability and opportunity to do so, I strongly recommend going back to school and finishing your courses. If this isn't an option for you, you could also consider earning a High School Equivalency Diploma instead of a GED. The HSED has a couple of additional requirements, but you'll still have to take the same tests as you would for the GED in most states. The HSED is accepted by a slightly larger range of employers and colleges, although it probably won't make a huge difference in your prospects as compared to a GED. A high school education is vital if you want to be eligible for most professional jobs and all colleges. Even if you didn't finish high school as planned, earning your GED will show that you are as qualified as other high school graduates for a wide range of opportunities in the future. Put up a new road sign on a highway called YOUR LIFE. What's Next? Are you concerned about the costs of higher education? Read our practical guide detailing the best ways to save money for college. If you or someone you know is juggling a college education and the responsibilities of raising a child, you should check out this list of great scholarships for moms and single mothers. You also might qualify for a federal Pell Grant if you need help managingthe costs of college. Find out if you're eligible here. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Discuss the various ways in which modern investors manage the risk in Essay

Discuss the various ways in which modern investors manage the risk in their portfolios - Essay Example Many of the participants in risk trading take particular points of view, and suffer losses when their points of view are not realized. It may also be that the risks in some of the more complex positions currently being taken are not always well understood by the institutions arranging the deals. In addition, risk control systems in some institutions are so weak that management cannot determine when institutional survival is being jeopardized. There are also aggregate problems, because the failure of one institution can bring about failure of others. Finally, there are presently few sources of aggregate statistics that would permit informed observers to assess exactly what the potential dangers in individual institutions’ positions might be. On the positive side, the percentage of capital at risk in derivatives trading has been estimated at some 10 percent of the total capital of the world’s banks. In addition, individual companies have sustained large losses from derivatives trading without creating serious externalities. For example, when Barings Bank failed in 1995, many of the other banks trading with Barings had become aware of the unusual risks it was taking and had reduced their positions with Barings (J. Rosenhead, J. Mingers, 2001). Basically, the perception of risk is the result of an investors thought processes. Let us say that the investor speculates that a new factory will be able to produce V volume of goods that can be sold for P price. The question is: Where do V and P come from? Some say that V and P spring from the imagination while others maintain that V and P are a result of a deliberate cognitive process of logic and dispassionate judgment. Perhaps these, and other conjectures concerning the thought process of the human mind, are all part of a businessmans assessments of the projected values of price and volume. These values, when properly manipulated with costs,